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My aim in this investigation is to analyse a solution of hydrochloric acid and calculate the concentration of acid it contains in gdm .


Apparatus


Solution of Hydrochloric Acid (HCL � 0. molar)


Solution of Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)


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100cm Conical Flask


Pipette (5cm )


Pipette Filler


Burette


Distilled Water


Volumetric Flask


Funnel


Methyl Orange Indicator


White Tile.


Method


1.Collect all the apparatus and set up as shown in diagram below.


.Hydrochloric Acid should be diluted.I have to dilute the acid from 0. molar to 0.0 molar, because at 0. mol/dm it is 0 times more concentrated than CA(OH) . Use a pipette and pipette filler to transfer 5cm of hydrochloric acid into a graduated flask. The rest of the flask should be filled with distilled water until the solution reaches the faint line on the neck of the graduated flask. This shows that 50cm has been reached.


.After rinsing, the burette is filled with acid to the 0 mark. This should be done using funnel to prevent any spillages. The acid should run through the whole of the burette. This is to make sure that the acid is the only solution in the burette.


4.A few drops of indicator, Methyl Orange are added to the flask (methyl orange is being used as the titration is between a strong acid and a weak alkali), which is placed on a white tile underneath the burette.


5.Record initial burette reading before beginning the titration (should be 0cm always).


6.Acid is added to the flask from the burette. The flask is swirled continuously to mix the chemicals.


7.This process continues until the indicator just changes colour (red/magenta pink). This is the end-point. The white tile helps to identify any colour changes more clearly.


8.The volume of acid used from the burette is noted.


.The process is repeated until at least results are within 0.1cm of each other. These are concordant results.


10.Results obtained should be recorded in a suitable results table.


11.Apparatus should be cleaned away safely and all glassware should be washed with distilled water.


Variables


In this investigation, the only variable there will be is the amount of hydrochloric acid added to the conical flask.


Risk Assessment


During this experiment, corrosive solutions (such as Calcium Hydroxide and Hydrochloric Acid) will used so eye protection such as goggles should be worn at all times incase of any incidents of wild reactions which would result to any splashes into the experimenters eyes.


Calcium Hydroxide is very corrosive which cause the skin to burn and irritate if spilt on it.


Calcium Hydroxide should be kept away from water because it reacts very vigorously with it. If any of the Calcium Hydroxide enters the eye then it must be washed with water as soon as possible.


If Calcium Hydroxide comes into contact with skin then the area affected should be washed with water and should seek medical care. Calcium should be disposed of by diluting it with large quantities of water and pouring it down a drain.


ANALYSIS


Table Of Results


1st Titre (cm )


nd Titre (cm )


rd Titre (cm )


Start


(Initial)


0


0


0


Finish


(Final)


.0


.40


.40


Overall Titre


.0


.40


.40


The overall titre is worked out using the following method


Initial Reading � Final Reading = Overall Titre (cm )


The average titre is worked out using the following method


1st titre + nd titre + rd titre = average titre (cm )





Average titres of concordant results = .0 + .40 + .40





= .66667


= .7 cm (rounded to nearest decimal place)


Using the average titre I am going to calculate the number of moles of Hydrochloric Acid (HCL).


Firstly divide the average titre by 1000 so that my result is covered into dm to get the volume.


The average titre = .4


1000


= 0.04 dm This is the volume


Now I am going to use the concentration of Hydrochloric Acid used (after dilution which is 0.0 moles dm ) to calculate the number of moles of Hydrochloric acid by using the formula.


Number of moles = Concentration (mol/dm ) x Volume (dm )


= 0.0 x 0.04


= 0.00067 moles


I am going to use the number of moles of Hydrochloric Acid used to calculate the number of moles of Calcium Hydroxide. I did not use the value given as it was just an estimate (0.015).


As you can see from the equation the ratio of Calcium Hydroxide to Hydrochloric Acid is 1, therefore half of the number of moles of Hydrochloric Acid was used.


Number of moles of Hydrochloric Acid = 0.00067





= 0.0006


Number of moles of Calcium Hydroxide = 0.0006 moles


Now using the number of moles of Calcium Hydroxide and the volume of Calcium Hydroxide I am going to calculate the concentration using the formula


Concentration (mol dm ) = Number of moles (m)


Volume (dm )


Volume = 5cm


1000


= 0.05 dm


Concentration = 0.0006


0.05


= 0.0144 mol/dm


I am now going to convert the moldm to gdm by multiplying by the molar mass


Molar mass of Calcium Hydroxide = 40 + (16x1) x = 74g


Concentration in gdm = 0.0144 x 74


= 0.46 gdm


The presumed concentration for the Calcium Hydroxide was 0.015moldm but from my calculations it worked out to be 0.456 mol gdm .


This was just over half the concentration that I had predicted it would be.


EVALUATION


From looking at my results I can perfectly see that there were no anomalous results because the overall titres were very close to one another. This is because the technique I used tried to make everything as accurate as possible.


I feel that the main errors occurred whilst I was using the pipette filler because it was very hard to handle. Sometimes there would be some air left in it.


I could have also had made some errors when it came to recognising the correct endpoints on the measuring equipment (volumetric flask, pipette filler etc...)


Here are some percentage errors that could have affected my results


Burette


0.05 + 0.05 x 100 = 0.45 %


.


0.05 + 0.05 x 100 = 0.45 %


.4


0.05 + 0.05 x 100 = 0.45 %


.4


Total % error for the burette = 0.45 + 0.45 + 0.45 = 1.5 = 4.5





-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


Pipette


A 5cm pipette was used to measure the solutions this introduces an error of 4%


On the 5cm pipette it states that there is a error of 0.06.


0.06 = 0.004


5


0.004 x 100 = 0.4


-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


Volumetric Flask


A 5cm volumetric flask which was used to measure the diluted acid introduces an error of 0.15%.


-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


Indicators could also of affected the results of my experiment because excess indicators will require a different volume of solution to be added from the burette before the required colour change is obtained. My results are reliable to a great extent because the titration was carried out three times to record concordant titres. All of the glassware was also washed thoroughly between use to prevent any contamination and blockages of dried up Hydrochloric Acid.


The percentage errors will affect the overall results because sometimes not enough or too much of the acid or alkali was added. I cannot find out if too much or too little was added. The procedure that I used was time consuming but it kept any errors to a minimum but this factor did not prevent the percentage errors from occurring and affecting the results. www.s-coo.co.uk


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Killing. Vs. Letting One Die Is there really a difference?


The controversy surrounding euthanasia has always been heated. Much of the debate revolves around the distinction between killing a person as opposed to letting one die, which then leads to the debate about active and passive euthanasia. In James Rachels article, Active and Passive Euthanasia, he makes the argument that there is no difference between killing and letting one die. It follows from this that there should be no distinction between active and passive euthanasia. This being said he also makes the argument that perhaps passive euthanasia can even be seen as more morally inhumane than passive euthanasia. I argue that James Rachels arguments are conclusive and will outline the main points of his argument that lead me to this conclusion.


As stated above, Rachels bases much of his argument of the premise that there is no difference between killing and letting one die, for both can be seen as equally morally reprehensible. He illustrates his point through the story of Smith and Jones. The story is that both Smith and Jones are to substantially gain financially if their nephew dies. Both men decide that they are going to kill their nephew. Smith walks into the bathroom as his nephew is bathing and drowns him. Jones on the other hand walks into the bathroom just as his nephew hits his head and drowns. Jones did not actively kill his nephew he just sat around and watched him die (Rachels, 150). Neither man behaved any better, both of their action (or lack there of) are equally morally reprehensible for their intentions were the same and the intentions are what is important and not the actual act of killing in itself (Rachels, 150). If the act of killing in and of itself is morally wrong then how is it that we justify other forms of killing, such as killing during war or killing in self defense (Conference notes, Friday @ 110)?


Some may not see how this story is relevant to that of a doctor killing a patient, since the doctor has nothing to gain from it. The doctors are concerned with cases where the patient¡¯s life is of no further use to him, and cases where the suffering is so painful that death would be the best solution. However the point is the same ¡°the bare difference between killing and letting die does not, in itself, make a moral difference¡± (Rachels, 150). If a doctor lets a patient die for humane reasons, he is in the same moral boat if he had given the patient a lethal injection (Rachels, 150). From this he concludes that the distinction between active and passive euthanasia does not follow. He reasons that if there is no moral difference between the two then neither active nor passive euthanasia is better or worse (depending on your view). He furthermore makes the argument that in some cases perhaps killing (active euthanasia) is the lesser of two evils because it is more humane in its methods.


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Active euthanasia is when you actively end the life of a terminally ill patient by way of, for example, a lethal injection. Passive euthanasia is when the doctor stops the treatment of the patient, which ultimately leads to the death of the patient. The American Medical Association believes that it is permissible to let one die however it is not permissible to actively end the life of a patient. The AMA believes that, ¡°mercy killing is contrary to that for which the medical profession stands¡± (Rachels, 14). Rachels, nevertheless refutes this argument claiming that many times passive euthanasia is more inhumane than active because the patient is left suffering until they succumb (Rachels, 14-150). That would also be contrary to that for which the medical profession stands for, because all doctors take the Hippocratic oath which asserts that all doctors will do whatever they can to relieve the suffering of their patients.


The AMA denies that the cessation of treatment can be looked at as killing a patient, for they are not doing anything (Rachels, 150). However non-action in itself is a form of action. He gives the example of insulting a person by calling them ugly, which is an active for of insulting someone, and then there is insulting someone by not shaking their hand, which is passively insulting them through non-action (Rachels, 151).


Therefor it can be concluded through James Rachels arguments that there is no moral distinction between killing and letting one die. They are both equally morally reprehensible. It is the intentions behind an action that make an act right or wrong. In the case of Smith and Jones both of their intentions were to kill their nephew for financial gain. In the case of doctors they do not have anything to gain personally form ending a life of a patient, however what is important to note is that their intention were humane, they want to end the suffering of the patient. This is why Rachels makes the claim that perhaps active euthanasia is more humane because you are letting the person die without any further suffering. Passive euthanasia is the cessation of treatment, however the person is suffering as they die. Perhaps the legalization of active euthanasia should be reconsidered, for no logical reason has been given otherwise.





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