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Introduction-‘The Aim of this Investigation’
We must produce a piece of coursework investigating the rates of reaction, and the effects different changes have on them. I will carry out a series of experiments and collect data of which I will analyse and evaluate. My experiments will show how changing a reaction variable has an effect on the rate of reaction as a whole. By collecting Secondary Source information I can investigate into the main variables and my chosen variable, and create a hypothesis (prediction) on what I think will and/or will not happen to the rate of reaction. To ensure that my experiments are carried out efficiently and safely, I must consider the other effecting variables, making sure they stay constant, the safety features involved when carrying out the experiment, and to investigate into how I can make my tests as fair as possible. Then by recording my results, working out the averages and rates of reaction and drawing graphs, I can prove whether or not my hypothesis (prediction) was correct by writing a detailed critical analysis.
Secondary Source Information
What is the Rate of Reaction?
The rate of reaction is the rate of loss of a reactant or the rate of formation of a product during a chemical reaction. It is measured by dividing 1 by the time taken for the reaction to take place.
What is a Chemical Reaction?
The collision theory says that
Chemical reactions occur when particles of the reactants collide. They must collide with a certain minimum energy, called the activation energy.
This activation energy is the minimum energy needed to break the chemical bonds in the molecules, and so when they collide a chemical reaction can take place (otherwise they will just bounce off of each other harmlessly). Example Methane does not react with oxygen at room temperature (as like many other substances). In order to make them react, heat energy must be added to provide the molecules with activation energy, and this is why we ignite them (to increase temperature). Only a small percent of particles will overcome the activation energy barrier (the minimum energy needed for particles to react) and only those with enough energy to overcome the barrier will react after colliding.
The following shows how the collision theory is used to explain the effect of surface area, concentration and temperature
Surface Area
Surface area of zinc low.
Concentration
Concentration of acid low.
Temperature
Temperature low.
Key
Zinc Atom
Hydro
-gen ion from acid
Surface area higher- more zinc exposed to collisions
Concentration higher- more chance of particles colliding.
Temperature higher- particles collide with more energy.
How Do You Know When A Chemical Reaction Is Taking Place?
When a chemical reaction occurs, one substance changes to another and energy is transferred. Most chemical reactions give out heat, and are called exothermic reactions. However some reactions take in heat and we call them endothermic reactions. Exothermic reactions cause the temperature to rise and endothermic reactions cause the temperature to fall. Example When sherbet is put in your mouth it mixes with the saliva, creating an endothermic reaction and causing it to draw heat from your mouth.
Energy in chemical reactions can be transferred as heat, light, sound, electrical energy, and as odours. The five human senses eyes, nose, tongue, ears and skin can detect these energy transfers. Example The chemical reactions in fireworks transfer energy as heat, light, and sound. This is why we can hear, see and feel the heat from them.
The three main variables shown on the previous page are
Surface area
Concentration
Temperature
I have chosen temperature as a variable for my experiment because I feel that it is the most practical to carry out, and the range of variability is large.
Secondary Source Information- Effect of Temperature
Breaking Bonds
Substances are held together by chemical bonds. When chemical reactions take place these bonds are broken, and then re-made, changing one substance into another. It is the breaking and making of these bonds that causes the energy changes in chemical reactions.
Chemical bonds hold atoms together. Breaking bonds involves pulling these atoms apart- and this needs activation energy, also known as heat. On the other hand, making new bonds gives out energy.
Breaking bonds takes in energy.
Making new bonds gives out energy.
All reactions need activation energy to break the bonds and get them started. For some reactions the bonds are quite easily broken and so the activation energy is fairly low. Such reactions can start at room temperature, without heating.
Example As soon as sodium is put into water it reacts.
Other reactions need a lot of energy (heat) to break the bonds and get them started.
Example Charcoal (Carbon) needs a lot of heating to get it burning. This is because the bonds holding the Carbon atoms together are very strong.
Example The Reaction of Methane with Oxygen
HEAT
When more heat is supplied to the particles they have more energy and move around faster, making bond breakage easier and creating more effective collisions in a certain time. The more heat supplied the stronger the collisions. Therefore at higher temperatures, the particles are moving faster, crashing harder and more effectively, creating a faster reaction.
Raising the temperature
1. makes particles collide more often in a certain time, and
. makes it more likely that collisions result in a reaction.
Preventing Bond Breakage
To prevent a chemical reaction the bonds need to remain in their fixed positions. We already know that heat breaks bonds, and so it is logical to say that a decrease in temperature strengthens the bonds, holding them firm in place. Light also breaks bonds, however this process is much slower.
Example of Preventing Bond Breakage Many types of food are kept, wrapt up in a cold, dark fridge. This is to decrease the rate of reaction (bond breakage) and keep the food fresh. The food is
• Wrapt up- to decrease the rate of reaction with oxygen in the air.
• Kept in the dark- to decrease the rate of reaction with light.
• Kept in a cold environment- to decrease the rate of reaction with heat.
Preliminary Experiment
The following experiment will be carried out in order to observe the changes that take place when I mix equal volumes of the two clear liquids, ‘Hydrochloric Acid’ (1M) �HCl and ‘Sodium Thiosulphate Solution’ (40G/L) - NaSO.
This experiment was first of all carried out and demonstrated by our teacher during a lesson one morning. We were shown what happened when the two clear liquids contained in two clear beakers were simply poured from one into the other. Once added together, the two liquids started to change and within seconds there was evidence that a chemical reaction had occurred because we could see a newly formed cloudy, opaque mixture. Our teacher touched the beaker and told us that it was warm. This was also evidence that a chemical reaction had taken place as the mixture was giving out heat, indicating that it was an exothermic reaction.
A precipitate of sulphur is given off as a result of this reaction and this is the reason for which the liquid turns cloudy.
Aim
I will now go about this preliminary experiment myself. The aim of this preliminary experiment will be to collect further information, providing me with a more detailed view on how I will go about changing the variable chosen (temperature), how I will measure and record my results accurately, and how to make my tests as fair and safe as possible when carrying out my main investigation.
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl(aq))
Hydrochloric acid contains
Chloride ions, Cl �
Hydroxonium ions, HO+ (which are present in all solutions of acids)
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid because it splits up almost completely into H+(aq) and CL-(aq) ions. It is the type of acid contained in our stomachs, and used to digest our food. With a PH of 1, this acid is very dangerous and must be handled with great care. It is a colourless liquid and can be mistaken for water. It has a strong, dangerous smell that could damage your nose. If you were to swallow or splash any acid in your eyes, you could end up in hospital! Also, if acid is split on your clothes it bleaches the colour from them. It is soluble in water.
Sodium Thiosulphate (NaSO(aq))
Sodium Thiosulphate (hypo) is a white, crystalline, water-soluble substance used in photography as a fixing agent. It is odourless (has no smell). It has a PH value between 5.5 and .0 (fairly neutral-slightly alkaline)
Sodium Thiosulphate (liquid form) is contained within a dark glass bottle to prevent the breakage of bonds cause by light.
From the information of which I have gathered (shown above), I can now specify the safety precautions needed during this preliminary experiment.
Safety
For this experiment
• You will need to wear eye protection-GOGGLES. You will be handling acid.
• You will need to be aware of your surroundings- NO RUNNING. You will be handling chemicals such as hydrochloric acid. Spillages, breakages, of any kind are a danger hazard.
• You will need to rid your hands of any traces of chemicals such as acid after carrying out your experiment- WASH YOUR HANDS. You will be handling acid, a clear, water like substance (to the eye), if you have any traces of acid on your hands and then put your hands in your mouth or on any food substance and the eat it you could make yourself ill.
• You will need to tie long hair back- TIE BACK HAIR. You hair could be an obstruction and/or could be damaged.
• You will need to handle the acid- ACID, HANDLE WITH CARE. Any wrong move could cause an accident.
• You will need to take off any lose, baggy accessories that may become an obstruction- TAKE OFF ACCESSORIES. You jewellery etc. could be an obstruction and/or could be damaged.
• You will need to roll up your sleeves- ROLL UP SLEEVES. Your sleeves could be an obstruction and/or could be damaged.
How I will Measure The Rate Of Reaction
I will use an X board to measure how long it takes for the solution to go cloudy. It will be placed underneath one of the clear solutions contained within a clear conical flask. When the other solution is added the two will react, creating a cloudy, opaque mixture and concealing the cross. By using your eyesight and looking over the top of the flask you can determine when you think the cross has disappeared. A stop clock can be used to time how long it takes for the cross to disappear. It will be started once the whole of one solution is added to another, and stopped when you think the cross cannot be seen anymore.
Fair Test
For this experiment I will be taking three readings of how long it will take for 50cm of both HCL (1M) and NaSO (40G/L) to react and conceal an X board at room temperature (0o C). I will ensure that after each test my apparatus is thoroughly rinsed and cleaned, and that I use the same apparatus for the same chemical. The same person will judge when they think the cross has disappeared for each test, as different people have varied eyesight, and judgement. Also the same X board will be used for each test.
Hypothesis (prediction)
With the help of my secondary source information and the demonstration from our teacher I have thought out and chosen the most suitable apparatus, accurate methods of measurement and the safety precautions needed during this test. The aim of this preliminary experiment will be to run through my ideas, and prevent errors occurring during my main investigation. Therefore I predict that if all of my tests are fair, and accurately measured, then all three readings should be near enough identical. However, if the results are not of any similarity then I will need to run through the procedure again, checking for any miscalculations or faults in my experiment.
Apparatus
50cm - Hydrochloric Acid (1M)
50cm - Sodium Thiosulphate (40g/l)
- Labelled Conical flasks (Acid, S. Thio.)
- Labelled Burettes (Acid, S. Thio.)
1 - Stop clock
- Stands
- Clamps
1 - X board
1 - Pair of goggles
- Labelled Beakers (Acid, S. Thio.)
- Funnels
Diagram
Method
1) Rinse, clean and set up the apparatus, as shown in the diagram.
) Put on goggles.
) Use 150cm beakers to approximately measure 50cm of both Sodium Thiosulphate (40G/L) and dilute hydrochloric acid (1M) separately.
4) Using the beakers, pour each chemical into the funnel at the top of each burette (making sure the release valves are closed), for a more accurate reading.
5) Using these beakers, drain off, or add more liquid until each burette reads off at 50cm.
6) Place the two conical flasks underneath the burettes and release 50cm of each separate chemical into them. Making sure to close the release valve when the reading reaches 0.
7) Place one flask on the cross and add the chemical from the other flask into it.
8) Start the stop clock as soon as the entire quantity of the other chemical has been added.
) Look over the flask at the cross and judge as to when you think the cross has disappeared.
10) Stop the clock.
11) Record your results.
1) Dilute the cloudy mixture by pouring water into it. Otherwise a powerful toxin is given off called ‘acid sulphuric dioxide’ when you get rid of the newly created mixture.
1) Pour the mixture away and rinse apparatus (beakers, and conical flasks) thoroughly.
14) Repeat three times, take the average and work out the ‘rate of reaction’.
15) Rinse and clear away all of the apparatus.
Results
Time taken for cross to cross to disappear (in seconds)
Temperature 1st set of results (taken to d.p) nd set of results (taken to d.p) rd set of results (taken to d.p) Average (taken to d.p) Rate of Reaction (1/average time)
Room Temperature (0oC) .70 8.11 6.7 8.0 0.05460
When I mix the two, clear liquids, ‘Hydrochloric Acid’ (1M) - HCl and ‘Sodium Thiosulphate Solution’ (40G/L) - NaSO the following chemical reaction takes place.
NaSO(aq) + HCl(aq) ----------- 1/8 S8(s) + SO(g) + NaCl(aq) + HO(l)
Sodium + Hydrochloric ------ Sulphur + Sulphur + Sodium + Water
Thiosulphate Acid Dioxide Chloride
My results show that at room temperature (0oC) the time taken for 50cm of both HCL (1M) and NaSO (40G/L) to react and conceal an X board is an average of 8.0 (taken to d.p) seconds. My readings range from 6.7 to .70 seconds, showing that there is less than seconds difference throughout. The calculated average is more or less identical to the median set of results (8.11 seconds), also highlighting the similarities. The results clearly support my prediction and are what I expected. Therefore I feel that this experiment has enabled me to test out my methods of measurement, safety and fairness and prove them to be efficient enough to use for my main investigation.
The information from this preliminary experiment aids me to now plan and carry out my ‘main’ experiment efficiently.
My Experiment- Does the Rate of Reaction Increase When the Temperature is increased?
Aim
I have already collected certain vital information by carrying out a preliminary experiment. The experiment has enabled me to check, and verify my methods chosen for measurement, fairness, and the safety features involved. I can now expand the information collected and use it during my investigation. The information collected during my preliminary experiment can be related to the following investigation, and all of the information shown above is the core data needed for the following experiment. I will now carry out a series of experiments and collect data of which I will analyse and evaluate. My experiments will show how changing the temperature will affect the rate of reaction as a whole. By using the secondary source information of which I have collected I have investigated into the main variables and my chosen variable, and I am now able to create a hypothesis (prediction) on what I think will and/or will not happen to the rate of reaction. To ensure that my experiments are carried out efficiently and safely, I must consider the other effecting variables, making sure they stay constant, the safety features involved when carrying out the experiment, and to investigate into how I can make my tests as fair as possible. Then by recording my results, working out the averages and rates of reaction and drawing graphs, I can prove whether or not my hypothesis (prediction) is correct by writing a detailed critical analysis.
I will be mixing equal volumes of the two clear liquids ‘Hydrochloric Acid’ (1M) �HCl and ‘Sodium Thiosulphate Solution’ (40G/L) - NaSO, in order to observe and analyse the reaction changes (if any) when I increase the temperature.
How I will Measure The Rate Of Reaction
I will use an X board to measure how long it will take for the solution to go cloudy. As soon as both conical flasks are taken out of the water bath (after 5 minutes) I will place one of the clear solutions contained within one of the see-through conical flasks, on the X board and immediately add the other chemical. When the other solution is added the two will react, creating a cloudy, opaque mixture and concealing the cross. By using your eyesight and looking over the top of the flask you can determine when you think the cross has disappeared. A stop clock can be used to time how long it takes for the cross to disappear. It will be started once the whole of one solution is added to the other, and stopped when you think the cross cannot be seen anymore.
Hypothesis (prediction)
I predict that as the temperature is increased the rate of reaction will increase (the collision theory can support this). I think that the reactions will occur more rapidly as the temperature is increased, and that this will show as a decrease in the time taken for the reaction to happen. When the temperature is increased there will be more heat energy supplied, and therefore more particles will be provided with the minimum activation energy needed to create effective collisions in a certain amount of time. I also predict that my graph(s) drawn up in my analysis will have a positive correlation for the ‘rate of reaction’ and a negative correlation for the ‘time taken’. They will both probably be curved as the increase in the ‘rate of reaction’ and decrease in the ‘time taken’ will not be exactly the same as the temperature increase. Lastly I also predict that at a certain temperature enough energy will have been supplied to all of the particles contained within each chemical and the reaction rate will not increase any further. Eventually both liquids will have all bonds broken and re-joined and therefore causing the curve in the graph(s) to straighten off.
Fair Test
In order to make my experiment a fair test I will only show how temperature affects the ‘Rate of Reaction’, and therefore the surface area and concentration should be kept at a constant (the same) for each test, otherwise my results could be affected by any unfair miscalculations. I will use the same apparatus for each experiment, and carry out my tests in the same environment (in this case- room temperature (0oC or 70oF) and room lighting on). I will empty and rinse both conical flasks after each test to make sure they are thoroughly clean as any excess chemicals may affect my next test. The same person must judge when they think the cross has disappeared for each test, as different people have varied eyesight, and judgement. The same X will be used for each test. Both conical flasks will be entered and taken out of the water bath at the same time. I will also make sure that I do not switch the burettes, conical flasks, or beakers used to measure the acid with the ones used to measure the Sodium Thiosulphate (and visa versa) as this may result in a mix up of the chemicals before I conduct my experiment, and probably affecting the results.
Safety
For this experiment
• You will need to wear eye protection-GOGGLES. You will be handling acid.
• You will need to be aware of your surroundings- NO RUNNING. You will be handling chemicals such as hydrochloric acid. Spillages, breakages, of any kind are a danger hazard.
• You will need to rid your hands of any traces of chemicals such as acid after carrying out your experiment- WASH YOUR HANDS. You will be handling acid, a clear, water like substance (to the eye), if you have any traces of acid on your hands and then put your hands in your mouth or on any food substance and the eat it you could make yourself ill.
• You will need to tie long hair back- TIE BACK HAIR. You hair could be an obstruction and/or could be damaged.
• You will need to handle the acid- ACID, HANDLE WITH CARE. Any wrong move could cause an accident.
• You will need to take off any lose, baggy accessories that may become an obstruction- TAKE OFF ACCESSORIES. You jewellery etc. could be an obstruction and/or could be damaged.
• You will need to roll up your sleeves- ROLL UP SLEEVES. Your sleeves could be an obstruction and/or could be damaged.
• You will be working with and near electricity. ELECTRICITY, BE CAUCIOUS! Make sure there is no water near the plug socket (water conducts electricity) and that the wires are not hanging over the edge of the work surface, as someone could accidentally catch them and cause an accident.
• You will be using hot water to warm up your chemicals. HOT WATER, BE AWARE. Although it may not be boiling, in some cases the water may be extremely hot. Make sure the water bath is not near the edge of the table (where it may be knocked over) and be careful as to not splash anyone or place your hands in the water, as someone may get burnt.
Measurements
Non-variables- Concentration and Surface Area
For each experiment
The Sodium Thiosulphate, 40G/L and the hydrochloric acid, 1M will be accurately measured, 50cm, into two separate flasks. I will place the flasks in the water bath for 5 minutes.
Variable-Temperature
In order to receive an accurate, precise set of results my temperatures will range from 0oC to 70oC and I will measure every 5oC, times and then take the averages.
Apparatus
50cm - Hydrochloric Acid (1M)
50cm - Sodium Thiosulphate (40g/l)
- Labelled Conical flasks (Acid, S. Thio)
- Labelled Burettes (Acid, S. Thio.)
1 - Stop clock
- Stands
- Clamps
1 - X board
1 - Pair of goggles (per person)
- Labelled Beakers (Acid, S. Thio.)
1 - Water Bath 1 - Digital Thermometer
- Funnels
Diagram
Method
1. Rinse, clean and set up the apparatus, as shown in the diagram.
. Put on goggles.
. Set the acquired temperature of the bath.
4. Use 150cm beakers to approximately measure 50cm of both Sodium Thiosulphate (40G/L) and dilute hydrochloric acid (1M) separately.
5. Using the beakers, pour each chemical into the funnel at the top of each burette (making sure the release valves are closed), for a more accurate reading.
6. Using these beakers, drain off, or add more liquid until each burette reads off at 50cm.
7. Place the two conical flasks underneath the burettes and release 50cm of each separate chemical into them. Making sure to close the release valves when the liquid level reaches 0.
8. Place the digital thermometer into the bath and wait for a .5 degree difference than the acquired temperature. Leave thermometer in the bath.
. Place the flasks in the bath at THE SAME TIME, and hold them for 5 minutes (time, using a stop clock) making sure that the chemical contained are both submerged underneath the water.
10. 5 minutes later take out both flasks at THE SAME TIME, place one flask on the cross and add the chemical from the other flask into it.
11. Start the stop clock as soon as the entire quantity of the chemical has been added.
1. Use your eyes to judge when to stop the clock. Look over the flask at the cross. You judge when you think the cross has disappeared (It is best to use the same person for this as different people have varied eyesight, and judgement), and then stop the clock.
1. Dilute the cloudy mixture by pouring water into it. Otherwise a powerful toxin is given off called ‘acid sulphuric dioxide’ when you get rid of the newly created mixture.
14. Pour the mixture away and rinse apparatus (beakers, and conical flasks) thoroughly.
15. Repeat times for each temperature, record your results, work out the averages, and the rates of reaction for each temperature.
16. Clear away apparatus.
Results
Time taken for cross to disappear (in seconds)
Temperature 1st set of results (taken to d.p) nd set of results (taken to d.p) rd set of results (taken to d.p) Average (taken to d.p) Rate of Reaction (1/average time)
0 oC 1.7 (14.18) 1.18 18.5 1.01 0.05608
5 oC 16.41 15.67 16.0 16.0 0.06801
40 oC 1.8 1. 1.1 1.0 0.07680415
45 oC 10.5 11. 11.06 10.6 0.0140875
50 oC 8.50 8.6 (11.06) 7.56 8.14 0.18501
55 oC 6.7 6.5 5.45 6.10 0.16446
60 oC 6.01 5. 5.6 5.5 0.1808186
65 oC 5.55 5. 5.14 5. 0.18761760
70 oC 5.4 5.44 (7.8) 5.1 5. 0.18761760
What My Results Show
In this experiment I have found out that as the temperature is increased the time taken for the reaction to take place decreases. This means that the rate of the reaction increases and as a result it takes less time for the reaction to take place.
The time taken for the reaction to take place decreased on average by roughly seconds between 0 and 50 oC, seconds from 50 to 55 oC, 1 second from 55 to 60 oC and .5 of a second between 60 and 65 oC before the average reaction time could not increase any further. Therefore I think that the time taken for the reaction to take place was at a constant decrease of seconds up to the 50 oC mark and that from this point onwards the decrease in the time taken for the reaction to take place reduced more and more, until it could not increase any further (70 oC). Also the reaction rate increased by an average of 0.015 to 0.00 up to the 50 oC mark and then between the 50 and 55 oC point it increased dramatically by over 0.04 before the increase slowly rose to a halt at 70 oC. This information tells me that there was a steady increase in the reaction rate until around the 50 to 55 oC where there was a sudden ‘burst’ as it increased drastically.
From this information I can prove that my hypothesis was correct and that when there was an increase in the temperature the reaction time decreased and as a result the reaction rate increased. I have also found evidence to prove that at a certain temperature (50 to 55 oC) the reaction time decrease and reaction rate increase would gradually slow down until stopping at 70 oC. However the reaction rate has revealed that at around 50 to 55 oC there was a sudden ‘explosion’ as it increased by 0.04 and I think that this was the point of which there was enough activation energy (heat) supplied to most of the particles, breaking many bonds and making numerous collisions in a certain time. Several of these collisions were effective, overcoming the activation energy barrier and I think that this is what caused the dramatic increase in the rate of reaction.
Inaccurate Results
Whilst recording my results I noticed that there was the occasional odd misfit of which did not seem to correspond with the relationship between the other results. When I first recorded all of my results on paper I picked out readings that were + differences to the other readings of that temperature. By considering the effects that these results may have had on the outcome of my experiment I repeated all to ensure that my results would be accurate. The inaccurate results are shown in brackets ( ).
Graph-The Time Taken for the Reaction to Take Place
The graph above proves my hypothesis to be correct. By having a negative correlation the graph shows how the time taken for the reaction to take place decreases as the temperature rises. I have marked on the exact points of which when the cross disappeared on average for every 5 oC and drawn in a line of best fit to give a more accurate picture. The line of best fit decreases at a constant (straight line) up to around 50 oC and then gradually curves to level off at 70 oC. This indicates a change in the reaction at 50 oC and my results drawn up in the table also indicate this change as well. I think that this is the point as to where many particles received efficient energy to break the activation energy barrier.
Graph- The Rate of Reaction
The graph above proves my hypothesis to be correct, but also provides me with some additional information. I have marked on the exact points of the average rate of reaction for every 5 oC and drawn in a line of best fit to give a more accurate picture. By having a positive correlation the graph shows that when the temperature is increased the rate of reaction increases. It’s also a curve, levelling off gradually.
However unlike the ‘time’ graph this graph provides me with a lot more detail of which I did not predict. The line of best-fit increases at a constant up to around 45 to 50 oC and then starts to increase at a more steeper gradient before starting to curve off at around 55 to 60 oC. I think that this indicates an increase in the speed of the reaction from 45 to 55 oC and is also shown in the results table above. Therefore by using the secondary source information on the collision theory etc. I think that this rise in the rate of reaction speed indicates an increase in the amount of particles provided with sufficient activation energy to break the activation energy barrier.
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