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In 18th century Europe, there were dramatic changes in the way people thought taking place. This period became to be known as the Enlightenment and was a new period of intellectual growth and development for Europe. Among the many figures responsible for the Enlightenment are the popular authors of the time. Voltaire and Rousseau were two of the more heralded writers of 18th century Europe. For this essay, we read Voltaire’s Candide and The Social Contract by Rousseau. In order to respond to the assertion we’re provided though, it might help to define the term civil society, since that’s what the assertion is about. Civil society is simply a group of people living together in a community and their relationships with each other or with the state or ruling power. Now as for the assertion, it was two-part, so I chose to answer it in two parts…
I agree with the assertion that, in Candide, Voltaire argues for the perfectibility of civil society. The underlying theme that became apparent in reading Candide, was that Voltaire believed civil society can be made perfect if people go back to living simple lives off the land in small communities. Yet, true utopian society, in every sense, is impossible to develop and will never really exist. This can be seen in the way Voltaire brings up the different ideas of utopia throughout the novel. For instance, Pangloss’ vision of utopia is that he, Candide, Cunegonde and the rest of the cast at the beginning of the novel lived in “the best of all possible worlds” and that since everything is made for an end, everything is necessarily for the best end. (pg. 4) This soon came into question though, as Candide was driven out of the castle after his encounter with Cunegonde. He was then left, sad and broke and was soon forced by recruiting officers of the Bulgar army to join them. During a fierce battle Candide hides, trying to keep away from the bloodshed and “heroic butchery” taking place on the battlefield. He talks about what a waste of human life such practice is, showing some of Voltaire’s anti-war sentiment. Candide wonders how Pangloss’ theory could be true, how could this be for the best?
Voltaire also shows his distaste for organized religion and the church establishment in the novel. The church is portrayed as a corrupt and violent organization. All throughout the book, he depicts priests and monks as hypocrites who do not practice what they preach. When he escapes the battlefield, he heads to Holland, again hungry and broke, where he comes across a Protestant preacher, giving a speech on charity. The preacher declines to give him any bread after he could not answer a question about the pope being the antichrist. However, an Anabaptist befriended him, took him in, fed him and let him bathe and gave him some money. This temporarily restored Candide’s faith in the philosophy taught to him by Pangloss long ago.
Another version of utopia shows up in Candide as the city of Eldorado. In Eldorado, there was such an abundance of gold and jewels that none of the residents paid them any thought; to them they were just pebbles and stones. Candide and his companion Cacambo were given much food and drinks for free upon their arrival to Eldorado. When they attempted to pay for it with gold picked up off the roads, their caretakers laughed at them and said they were obviously foreigners, had none of the local currency and were not expected to pay for such treatment. Candide discussed the religion or Eldorado with a well-learned and respected old man who told Candide that he believed they practiced the same religion as everyone else. He said that all citizens worship god, but do not pray, as there is nothing to pray for in Eldorado, they live in the best of all possible worlds. There were no monks or other church officials, every man was a priest, all citizens had the same beliefs, the old man saw no reason for these figures in religion. Candide was shocked by this, saying that if Pangloss had seen it, he would stop suggesting that the castle back in Westphalia was the best thing on earth. Eldorado, I think, represents the perfect civil society, yet Candide is still not happy. He begins to miss the adventure of travel and his ladyfriend Cunegonde. After a month in Eldorado, resolves to leave and find her. The King gives Candide and Cacambo 100 sheep and they take gold, diamonds and other jewels from Eldorado along with them for their journey.
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Throughout Candide, Voltaire strongly criticizes and pokes fun at several prominent people and establishments of his time. It is my opinion that he does this to show how far from perfect civil society actually is. Every idea of a prospective utopia that shows up in the novel turns out not to be so perfect. Eldorado was missing adventure and Cunegonde. Though Pangloss still sticks to his old philosophic ideals in the final chapter, Candide shows indifference, saying “That is well said, but we must cultivate our garden” (pg. 11). Martin suggests that the group no longer discuss or debate philosophy, but work without theorizing. He, Candide and Pangloss come to an agreement that the best way to live is off the land, to cultivate a garden for themselves, and not try to understand all the evils of the world. This is what I think Voltaire’s true idea of utopia or a perfect society was to go back to nature and live off the land. So, to sum it up, since perfect is relative to the person using the word, I think Voltaire was arguing that society could be made (his version of) perfect. Even if that is true though, I don’t believe that many people would actually be suited with it. I know I wouldn’t.
I also agree with the assertion that Rousseau, in The Social Contract, holds that civil society cannot endure without an all-powerful sovereign. Throughout the book, Rousseau uses the word sovereign to mean voice of law or absolute power. He suggests that the best form of civil society is that in which the sovereign is the general will of the people, not the will of an absolutist monarch. In his ideal society, people existed in a natural state; all men were equals, as it was in the days before government. All members of the community were engaged in a “social contract”. As part of this contract, they submit to the will of the sovereign in order to gain peace, protection, ownership of land and goods and civil liberty. Rousseau believed that all citizens had the right to do what they pleased, under the condition that it did not conflict with public interest. Under the system Rousseau argues for, the government truly represents the common people, since they are the members, instead of just the privileged upper class being represented. He held that this was a truly free society, not free in the way that any inhabitant can do anything they want, but free in the way that the people (as a whole) create their own laws through due process and live by them.
In addition to covering this social contract and its implications, Rousseau also examines other functions of the state and important parts of life from the time. He gives his thoughts about law, property, slavery, the right to live, limiting power and other subjects. While I do agree with a lot of the things he says, it seems he makes things out to be less complex than they are in reality. For instance, he fails to take into account that people are inherently greedy, and given a chance to profit from something, will most likely try to do so. He has a very moralistic or utopian way of seeing things. Somehow he thinks that, with all citizens equal, there will be no corruption or dishonesty among the community. How would this take place though? How could it be possible to make all the citizens equal? I’m sure the nobility liked to have their money and property, they wouldn’t just let someone take it all to redistribute so they could be equal with the commoners. He indeed had some radical ideas for the time.
Rousseau and Voltaire both died in the year 1778. Both were key figures in the Enlightenment of Europe in the 18th century. They personified this new way of thinking that was sweeping through Europe at the time. They were both prolific and controversial writers, Voltaire was exiled from France and other European countries regularly for his works. Along with many of the other important thinkers of the Enlightenment, Voltaire recognized the hypocrisy of the Catholic Church, and the fact that it had become too powerful. Instead of religion, the great thinkers of the Enlightenment held science, education, and a belief in the good of humanity as key human virtues.
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